. A third argument claims that chieftaincy heightens primordial loyalties, as chiefs constitute the foci of ethnic identities (Simwinga quoted in van Binsberger, 1987, p. 156). It is also challenging to map them out without specifying their time frame. There are several types of government systems in African politics: in an absolute monarchy, the head of state and head of government is a monarch with unlimited legal authority,; in a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is a ceremonial figurehead who has few political competences,; in a presidential system, the president is the head of state and head of government, According to the African Development Bank, good governance should be built on a foundation of (I) effective states, (ii) mobilized civil societies, and (iii) an efficient private sector. As a United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) study (2007) notes, traditional leaders often operate as custodians of customary law and communal assets, especially land. As Legesse (1973, 2000) notes, the fundamental principles that guide the consensus-based (decentralized) authority systems include curbing the concentration of power in an institution or a person and averting the emergence of a rigid hierarchy. 2. As noted, there are notable differences in the authority systems of African traditional institutions. Such chiefs also have rather limited powers. Perhaps a more realistic transitional approach would be to reconcile the parallel institutions while simultaneously pursuing policies that transform traditional economic systems. Many others choose the customary laws and conflict resolution mechanisms because they correspond better to their way of life. Pre-colonial Political System In Nigeria (Yoruba Traditional System) In any case, as . The leader is accountable to various levels of elders, who serve as legislators and as judges (Legesse, 1973; Taa, 2017). There are very few similarities between democracy and dictatorship. Although considerable differences exist among the various systems, opportunities for women to participate in decision making in most traditional systems are generally limited. Competing land rights laws, for instance, often lead to appropriations by the state of land customarily held by communities, triggering various land-related conflicts in much of Africa, especially in areas where population growth and environmental degradation have led to land scarcity. It is too soon to tell whether such institutions can evolve in modern Africa as a result of gradual tinkering with reformist agendas, as the legacy of wise leaders; or whether they will only happen as a result of fundamental tests of strength between social and political groups. The abolishment of chieftaincy does not eradicate the systems broader underlying features, such as customary law, decision-making systems, and conflict resolution practices. This theme, which is further developed below, is especially critical bearing in mind that Africa is the worlds most ethnically complex region, home to 20 of the worlds most diverse countries in terms of ethnic composition.8. We know a good deal about what Africans want and demand from their governments from public opinion surveys by Afrobarometer. There are also various arguments in the literature against traditional institutions.2 One argument is that chieftaincy impedes the pace of development as it reduces the relevance of the state in the area of social services (Tom Mboya in Osaghae, 1989). Under the circumstances, it becomes critical that traditional leaders are directly involved in local governance so that they protect the interests of their communities. In general, decentralized political systems, which are often elder-based with group leadership, have received little attention, even though these systems are widespread and have the institutions of judicial systems and mechanisms of conflict resolution and allocation of resources, like the institutions of the centralized systems. This article contends that postcolonial African traditional institutions lie in a continuum between the highly decentralized to the centralized systems and they all have resource allocation practices, conflict resolution and judicial systems, and decision-making practices, which are distinct from those of the state. Paramount chiefs: Another category of leadership structure is that of hereditary paramount chieftaincy with various traditional titles and various levels of accountability. Large countries such as the DRC, Ethiopia, and Mozambique are likely to experience pressures against centralized, authoritarian, or one-party governance (whether accompanied by real elections or not). Less than 20% of Africa's states achieved statehood following rebellion or armed insurgency; in the others, independence flowed from . If more leaders practice inclusive politics or find themselves chastened by the power of civil society to do so, this could point the way to better political outcomes in the region. Most African countries have yet to develop carefully considered strategies of how to reconcile their fragmented institutional systems. In some countries, such as Botswana, customary courts are estimated to handle approximately 80% of criminal cases and 90% of civil cases (Sharma, 2004). Because these governmental institutions reject the indigenous political systems on which African society was built, they have generally failed to bring political . Traditional leaders would also be able to use local governance as a platform for exerting some influence on national policymaking. Judicial marginalization: Another challenge posed by institutional fragmentation relates to marginalization of the traditional system within the formal legal system. Decision making is generally participatory and often consensus-based. This enhanced his authority. The kings and chiefs of Angola and Asante, for example, allowed European merchants to send their representatives to their courts. On the opposite side are the decentralized systems, led by a council of elders, that command little formal power. The population in the traditional system thus faces a vicious cycle of deprivation. Precolonial Political Systems - African Studies - Oxford Bibliographies Among the attributes of the traditional system with such potential is the systems transparent and participatory process of resolving conflicts, which takes place in open public meetings. The campaign by some (but not all) African states to pull out of the International Criminal Court is but one illustration of the trend. Why the traditional systems endure, how the institutional dichotomy impacts the process of building democratic governance, and how the problems of institutional incoherence might be mitigated are issues that have not yet received adequate attention in African studies. Subsequent to the colonial experience, traditional institutions may be considered to be informal institutions in the sense that they are often not sanctioned by the state. Their endurance and coexistence with the institutions of the state has created an institutional dichotomy in much of Africa. Stagnant economy, absence of diversification in occupational patterns and allegiance to traditionall these have a bearing on the system of education prevailing in these societies. Societal conflicts: Institutional dichotomy often entails incompatibility between the systems. Judicial Administration. PDF The role and importance of the institution of traditional leadership in The government system is a republic; the chief of state and head of government is the president. Command economies, as opposed to free-market economies, do not allow market forces like supply and demand to determine production or prices. However, their endurance, along with that of traditional economic systems, have fostered institutional fragmentation, which has serious adverse effects on Africas governance and economic development. List of African Union member states by political system Institutions represent an enduring collection of formal laws and informal rules, customs, codes of conduct, and organized practices that shape human behavior and interaction. Leaders may not be the only ones who support this definition of legitimacy. Thus, another report by PRIO and the University of Uppsala (two Norwegian and Swedish centers) breaks conflict down into state-based (where at least one party is a government), non-state-based (neither party is an official state actor), and one-sided conflicts (an armed faction against unarmed civilians). While this attribute of the traditional system may not be practical at the national level, it can be viable at local levels and help promote democratic values. Figure 1 captures this turn to authoritarianism in postindependence Africa. Such a consensus-building mechanism can help resolve many of the conflicts related to diversity management and nation-building. The government is undertaking a review of local government, which includes a commitment to introduce direct election of metropolitan, municipal and district chief executives (MMDCEs). Traditional African Religions - The Spiritual Life The participatory and consensus-based system of conflict resolution can also govern inter-party politics and curtail the frequent post-election conflicts that erupt in many African countries. This situation supported an external orientation in African politics in which Cold War reference points and former colonial relationships assured that African governments often developed only a limited sense of connection to their own societies. Freedom Houses ratings see a pattern of decline since 2005 and note that 10 out of 25 countries (worldwide) with declining ratings are in Africa. Transforming the traditional economic system is also likely to require embracing and utilizing the traditional institutional systems as vehicles for the provision of public services. The problems that face African governments are universal. What policies and laws will determine relations between farmers and urban dwellers, between farmers and herders, between diverse identity groups living in close proximity or encroaching on each others farm land, and between public officials, criminal networks and ordinary citizens? Another common feature is the involvement of traditional authorities in the governance process, at least at the local level. President Muhammadu Buhari is currently the federal head of state and government. Chester A. Crocker is the James R. Schlesinger Professor of Strategic Studies at Georgetown University. A Functional Approach to define Government 2. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. Wise leadership respects ethnic diversity and works toward inclusive policies. Government acknowledges the critical role of traditional leadership institutions in South Africa's constitutional democracy and in communities, particularly in relation to the Rural . Sometimes, another precedent flows from thesenamely, pressure from outside the country but with some support internally as well for creating a transitional government of national unity. The colonial system constitutes the second section. Traditional affairs | South African Government In sum, the digitization of African politics raises real challenges for political leaders and has the potential to increase their determination to digitize their own tools of political control. The origins of this institutional duality, the implications of which are discussed in Relevance and Paradox of Traditional Institutions, are largely traceable to the colonial state, as it introduced new economic and political systems and superimposed corresponding institutional systems upon the colonies without eradicating the existed traditional economic, political, and institutional systems. As noted, African countries have experienced the rise of the modern (capitalist) economic system along with its corresponding institutional systems. 28, (1984) pp. Note that Maine and . Security challenges can impose tough choices on governments that may act in ways that compound the problem, opening the door to heightened risks of corruption and the slippery slope of working with criminal entities. For these and other reasons, the state-society gap lies at the heart of the problems faced by many states. In other cases, however, they survived as paid civil servants of the state without displacing the traditional elder-based traditional authority systems. Prominent among these Sudanic states was the Soninke Kingdom of Ancient Ghana. African Solutions for African Problems - The Real Meaning South Africas strategy revolves around recognition of customary law when it does not conflict with the constitution and involves traditional authorities in local governance. In this context the chapter further touches on the compatibility of the institution of chieftaincy with constitutional principles such as equality, accountability, natural justice, good governance, and respect for fundamental human rights. Uneven access to public services, such as educational, health, and communication services, and the disproportionately high poverty rates in the traditional sector are manifestations of the sectors marginalization. Despite the adoption of constitutional term limits in many African countries during the 1990s, such restrictions have been reversed or defied in at least 15 countries since 2000, according to a recent report.6, The conflict-governance link takes various forms, and it points to the centrality of the variable of leadership. All life was religious . David and Joan Traitel Building & Rental Information, National Security, Technology & Law Working Group, Middle East and the Islamic World Working Group, Military History/Contemporary Conflict Working Group, Technology, Economics, and Governance Working Group, Answering Challenges to Advanced Economies, Understanding the Effects of Technology on Economics and Governance, Support the Mission of the Hoover Institution. PDF Traditional Systems of Communication in Nigeria Unfortunately, transforming the traditional sector is not an easy undertaking and cannot be achieved in a reasonably short time. However, the traditional judicial system has some weaknesses, especially with respect to gender equality. This section attempts to explain these seemingly contradictory implications of traditional institutions. There is little doubt that colonial occupation and the ensuing restructuring of African political entities and socioeconomic systems altered African traditional institutions of governance. The African Charter embodies some of the human . Not surprisingly, incumbent leaders facing these challenges look to short-term military remedies and extend a welcome to military partnerswith France, the United States, and the United Nations the leading candidates. To sum up, traditional institutions provide vital governance services to communities that operate under traditional socioeconomic spaces. By 2016, 35 AU members had joined it, but less than half actually subjected themselves to being assessed. This is in part because the role of traditional leaders has changed over time. The development of inclusive institutions may involve struggles that enable political and societal actors to check the domination of entrenched rulers and to broaden rule-based participation in governance. The end of colonialism, however, did not end institutional dichotomy, despite attempts by some postcolonial African states to abolish the traditional system, especially the chieftaincy-based authority systems. Traditional leadership in South Africa pre-existed both the colonial and apartheid systems of governance and was the main known system of governance amongst indigenous people. But it also reflects the impact of Arab, Russian, Chinese, Indian, European and U.S. vectors of influence which project their differences into African societies. Africa contains more sovereign nations than any other continent, with 54 countries compared to Asia's 47. The customary structures of governance of traditional leadership were put aside or transformed. MyHoover delivers a personalized experience atHoover.org. Constitutions of postcolonial states have further limited the power of chiefs. African states are by no means homogeneous in terms of governance standards: as the Mo Ibrahim index based on 14 governance categories reported in 2015, some 70 points on a scale of 100 separated the best and worst performers.16. The implementation of these systems often . PDF The Political Ideology of Indigenous African Political Systems and Paramount chieftaincy as a system of local government Overturning regimes in Africas often fragile states could become easier to do, without necessarily leading to better governance. As a result, customary law, which often is not recognized by the state or is recognized only when it does not contradict the constitution, does not protect communities from possible transgressions by the state. That is, each society had a set of rules, laws, and traditions, sometimes called customs, that established how the people would live together peacefully as part of larger group. By the mid-1970s, the politics of Africa had turned authoritarian. Challenges confronting the institution of chieftaincy have continued from the colonial era into recent times. The jury is still out on the merits of this practice. However, their participation in the electoral process has not enabled them to influence policy, protect their customary land rights, and secure access to public services that would help them overcome their deprivation. This brief overview of conflict in Africa signals the severity of the security challenges to African governance, especially in those sub-regions that feature persistent and recurrent outbreaks of violence. Certain offences were regarded as serious offences. These migrations resulted in part from the formation and disintegration of a series of large states in the western Sudan (the region north of modern Ghana drained by the Niger River). Enlightened leaders face a more complex version of the same challenge: how to find and mobilize the resources for broad-based inclusiveness? African Style Democracy? - Public Seminar Long-standing kingdoms such as those in Morocco and Swaziland are recognized national states. However, they do not have custodianship of land and they generally do not dispense justice on their own. (No award was made in 50% of the years since the program was launched in 2007; former Liberian president Ellen John Sirleaf won the award in 2017. But established and recognized forms of inherited rule cannot be lightly dismissed as un-modern, especially when linked to the identity of an ethnic or tribal group, and could be construed as a building block of legitimacy. Traditional African religions are not stagnant but highly dynamic and constantly reacting to various shifting influences such as old age, modernity, and technological advances. Before delving into the inquiry, clarification of some issues would be helpful in avoiding confusion. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). The reasons why rural communities adhere to the traditional institutions are many (Logan, 2011; Mengisteab & Hagg, 2017). In new countries such as most of those in Africa,7 where the rule of law is in competition with the rule of men, leaders play a strikingly critical role, for good or ill. This study notes that in 2007 Africa saw 12 conflicts in 10 countries. Africas states are the worlds newest, and it can hardly be surprising that Africans define themselves in terms of multiple identities including regional, tribal, clan-based, and religious onesin addition to being citizens of a relatively new state. However, they are not merely customs and norms; rather they are systems of governance, which were formal in precolonial times and continue to exist in a semiformal manner in some countries and in an informal manner in others.1. There is no more critical variable than governance, for it is governance that determines whether there are durable links between the state and the society it purports to govern. Misguided policies at the national level combined with cultural constraints facing these social groups may increase exclusion and create seeds of future trouble. Nonhereditary selected leaders with constitutional power: A good example of this is the Gada system of the Oromo in Ethiopia and Kenya. The point here is that peer pressure, examples, and precedents are especially important in a region of 54 states, many of them dependent on satisfactory relations with their neighbors. This kind of offences that attract capital punishment is usually . You could not be signed in, please check and try again. This section grapples with the questions of whether traditional institutions are relevant in the governance of contemporary Africa and what implications their endurance has on Africas socioeconomic development. The African Charter: A Printed Futility or a Reflection of Human Rights Against this broad picture, what is striking is the more recent downward trend in democratic governance in Africa and the relative position of African governance when viewed on a global basis. Why can't democracy with African characteristics maintain the values, culture and traditional system of handling indiscipline, injustice and information management in society to take firm roots. Violating customary property rights, especially land takings, without adequate compensation impedes institutional reconciliation by impoverishing rather than transforming communities operating in the traditional economic system. With respect to their relevance, traditional institutions remain indispensable for several reasons. Introduction: The Meaning of the Concept Government 1.1. However, they are not merely customs and norms; rather they are systems of governance, which were formal in precolonial times and continue to exist in a semiformal manner in some countries and in an informal manner in others. Why traditional institutional systems endure, how large the adherents to them is, and why populations, especially in rural areas, continue to rely on traditional institutions, even when an alternative system is provided by the state, and what the implications of institutional dichotomy is are questions that have not yet received adequate attention in the literature. The swing against western norms was captured in an interview with Ugandas repeatedly re-elected president Yoweri Museveni who remarked How can you have structural adjustment without electricity? Government, Public Policy Performance, Types of Government. Their "rediscovery" in modern times has led to an important decolonization of local and community management in order to pursue genuine self-determination. Stated another way, if the abolition of term limits, neo-patrimonialism, and official kleptocracy become a regionally accepted norm, this will make it harder for the better governed states to resist the authoritarian trend. However, almost invariably the same functions, whether or not formally defined and characterized in the same terms or exercised in the same manner, are also performed by traditional institutions and their leaders. The Sultanes of Somalia are examples of this category and the community has specific criteria as to who is qualified to be a chief (Ahmed, 2017). The settlement of conflicts and disputes in such consensus-based systems involves narrowing of differences through negotiations rather than through adversarial procedures that produce winners and losers. Hoover Education Success Initiative | The Papers. African conflict trends point to a complex picture, made more so by the differing methodologies used by different research groups. Our data indicate that traditional leaders, chiefs and elders clearly still play an important role in the lives The traditional African religions (or traditional beliefs and practices of African people) are a set of highly diverse beliefs that include various ethnic religions . African traditional administrative system with bureaucratization in the emerged new states of Africa.